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, Samejima, 1969); (c) those for partial credit (Masters, 1982); (d) those for multidimensional data (Bock, Gibbons, & Muraki, 1988); (e) those for component processes (Whitely, 1980); (f ) those for measuring changes in trait levels (Embretson, 1997; Wang, Wilson, & Adams, 1997); and (g) those for identifying latent classes that differ qualitatively in the nature of test responses (Rost, 1990) In this section we discuss two of these models: models for rating scales and models with restrictions on parameters Models for Rating Scales Models for rating scales are usually described as models for polytomous data, which means that multiple response categories are scored Rating scales are important in psychological measurement, and the models for dichotomous data cannot be applied directly to these data It is useful to think of polytomous IRT models as extensions of standard IRT models for the multiple response categories.

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The class of models for rating scales is quite broad In fact, polytomous IRT models have been developed for many more complex models that were originally available only for dichotomous data, to handle restricted item parameters, multidimensionality, latent classes and much more In general, the polytomous model parameters relate the various response categories to a location on the latent trait..

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Transactions in the J2EE platform can be controlled in several different ways The Java Transaction API (JTA) provides several mechanisms for transaction demarcation Transaction demarcation refers to the act of specifying the beginning and end for a transaction Essentially, this means we are de ning which operations are included in the transaction, and which operations are not included When we specify the end of a transaction, we also specify how the transaction has ended In other words, we indicate whether the transaction is committed or rolled back A JTA Transaction has one of two distinct avors, based on where the transaction demarcation is implemented a JTA transaction can be either a Container Managed Transaction (CMT) or a Bean Managed Transaction Bean Managed Transactions implement the transaction demarcation within an EJB itself.

This means that the code for the EJB includes calls to the JTA that connect to the Java Transaction Service (JTS) provided by the J2EE platform implementation To implement a BMT avored EJB, we simply add code to our EJB method implementation that explicitly invokes the begin() method and either the commit() method or the rollback() method, all of which are provided by the javaxtransactionUserTransaction interface Even though this avor seems familiar and comfortable for most database-application developers, we recommend using the CMT avored approach instead Container Managed Transactions implement the transaction demarcation using declarative transaction demarcation This means that the EJB Container will automatically invoke the begin() method and either the commit() method or the rollback() method (as appropriate) on behalf of the Bean instance.

The EJB container will use default policies and the transaction details declared in the EJB instance s deployment descriptor to decide when and how the transaction should be started and ended These details are controlled by specifying values to the Transaction Attributes for each method exposed by the Bean to its clients These attribute values specify the appropriate strategy for various transaction scenarios For example, what should the EJB Container do if a CMT EJB method is invoked but no transaction has been begun yet What should the Container do if there is already an active transaction Table 161 provides a summary of the possible JTA Transaction Attribute Values and the corresponding actions that will automatically be performed by the EJB Container on behalf of the CMT EJB for these two scenarios.

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By default, the Container will begin a transaction before the method invocation has begun and commit the transaction immediately after a successful return from the Bean s method Transactions will automatically be rolled back if the Bean s method raises an Exception, or if the code for the Bean s method explicitly invokes the setRollBackOnly method provided programmatically by the JTA..

During the transmission of data, the marking condition is used to denote the binary state ONE and the spacing condition is used to denote the binary state ZERO. Besides EIA-232 there are many other interface standards issued by EIA, CCITT, U.S. federal standards, U.S. military standards, and ISO. Each de nes the DTE DCE interface. Several of the more current standards are brie y described in the following. EIA-530 (Ref. 7) is a comparatively recent standard developed by the EIA. It provides for all data rates below 2.1 Mbps and it is intended for all applications requiring a balanced electrical interface.7 It can also be used for unbalanced operation. Let us digress for a moment. An unbalanced electrical interface is where one of the signal leads is grounded; for a balanced electrical interface, no ground is used. EIA-530 applies for both synchronous and nonsynchronous (i.e., start stop) operation. It uses a standard 25-pin connector; alternatively it can use a 26-pin connector. A list of interchange circuits showing circuit mnemonic, circuit name, circuit direction (meaning toward DCE or toward DTE), and circuit type is presented in Table 10.2.